Karting

About the Authors xiii Preface xv Acknowledgements xvii 1 Historical Background 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 The Gunpowder Era 2 1.3 Cannons, Muskets and Rockets 2 1.3.1 Musketry 7 1.3.2 Rocketry 9 1.4 Explosive Warheads 9 1.5 Explosives Science 11 Bibliography 14 2 Review of Laser Initiation 17 2.1 Introduction 17 2.2 Initiation Processes 19 2.3 Initiation by Direct Laser Irradiation 21 2.3.1 Laser Power 21 2.3.2 Laser Pulse Duration 22 2.3.3 Absorbing Centres 22 2.3.4 Pressed Density 23 2.3.5 Strength of ... Read More

About the Authors xiii Preface xv Acknowledgements xvii 1 Historical Background 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 The Gunpowder Era 2 1.3 Cannons, Muskets and Rockets 2 1.3.1 Musketry 7 1.3.2 Rocketry 9 1.4 Explosive Warheads 9 1.5 Explosives Science 11 Bibliography 14 2 Review of Laser Initiation 17 2.1 Introduction 17 2.2 Initiation Processes 19 2.3 Initiation by Direct Laser Irradiation 21 2.3.1 Laser Power 21 2.3.2 Laser Pulse Duration 22 2.3.3 Absorbing Centres 22 2.3.4 Pressed Density 23 2.3.5 Strength of Confining Container 24 2.3.6 Material Ageing 25 2.3.7 Laser-Induced Electrical Response 25 2.4 Laser-Driven Flyer Plate Initiations 25 2.5 Summary and Research Rationale 27 2.5.1 Rationale for Research 28 Bibliography 29 References 29 3 Lasers and Their Characteristics 35 3.1 Definition of Laser 35 3.2 Concept of Light 36 3.3 Parameters Characterizing Light Sources 39 3.4 Basic Principle of Lasers 45 3.5 Basic Technology of Lasers 47 3.6 Comparison between Laser and Thermal Sources 48 3.7 Suitable Laser Sources for Ignition Applications 49 3.7.1 Nd:YAG Laser 50 3.7.2 Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) 50 3.7.3 Diode Lasers 52 3.8 Beam Delivery Methods for Laser Ignition 53 3.8.1 Free Space Delivery 53 3.8.2 Fibre Optics Beam Delivery 54 3.9 Laser Safety 57 3.9.1 Laser Interaction with Biological Tissues 57 3.9.2 Precaution against Ocular Hazards 57 Bibliography 59 4 General Characteristics of Energetic Materials 61 4.1 Introduction 61 4.2 The Nature of Explosions 61 4.3 Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Explosives 63 4.4 Fuel and Oxidizer Concept 64 4.4.1 Explosive Mixtures 66 4.4.2 Pyrotechnics 69 4.4.3 Rocket Propellants 73 4.5 Explosive Compounds 74 4.5.1 Chemical Classification 74 4.6 Thermodynamics of Explosions 80 4.6.1 Oxygen Balance 82 Appendix 4.A 83 A.1 Data for Some Explosives 83 A.1.1 TNT (Trinitrotoluene) 83 A.1.2 HNS(Hexanitrostilbene) 83 A.1.3 DATB (1,3,Diamino,2,4,6,trinitrobenzene) 84 A.1.4 TATB (1,3,5,-Triamino-2,4,6-Trinitrobenzene) 84 A.1.5 Picric Acid (2,4,6,trinito- hydroxy benzene) 84 A.1.6 Styphnic Acid (2,4,6,trinito-1,3, dihydroxy benzene) 84 A.1.7 Tetryl or CE (Composition Exploding) 85 A.1.8 PICRITE (Niroguanidine) 85 A.1.9 RDX (Research Department eXplosive) 85 A.1.10 HMX (High Molecular-weight eXplosive) 85 A.1.11 EGDN (Nitroglycol) 86 A.1.12 NG (Nitroglycerine) 86 A.1.13 NC (Nitro-Cellulose) 86 A.1.14 PETN (Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate) 87 A.1.15 Metal Salts 87 A.2 Unusual Explosives 88 A.2.1 Tetrazene 88 Bibliography 89 5 Recent Developments in Explosives 91 5.1 Introduction 91 5.2 Improvements in Explosive Performance 91 5.2.1 Heat of Explosion Hc (Q) 91 5.2.2 Density of Explosives 92 5.3 Areas under Development 92 5.3.1 New Requirements for Explosive Compositions 93 5.4 Plastic-Bonded High Explosives 95 5.4.1 Plastic-Bonded Compositions 95 5.4.2 Thermoplastics 96 5.4.3 Thermosetting Materials 96 5.5 Choice of High Explosive for Plastic Bonded Compositions 97 5.6 High-Energy Plastic Matrices 97 5.7 Reduced Sensitivity Explosives 99 5.8 High Positive Enthalpies of Formation Explosives 101 5.8.1 High Nitrogen-Containing Molecules 102 5.8.2 Pure Nitrogen Compounds 102 5.8.3 Other High-Nitrogen Compounds 104 5.8.4 Nitrogen Heterocycles 105 Glossary of Chemical Names for High-Melting-Point Explosives 113 Bibliography 113 References 113 6 Explosion Processes 117 6.1 Introduction 117 6.2 Burning 117 6.3 Detonation 123 6.4 Mechanism of Deflagration to Detonation Transition 124 6.5 Shock-to-Detonation 127 6.6 The Propagation of Detonation 128 6.7 Velocity of Detonation 129 6.7.1 Effect of Density of Loading 131 6.7.2 Effect of Diameter of Charge 131 6.7.3 Degree of Confinement 131 6.7.4 Effect of Strength of Detonator 132 6.8 The Measurement of Detonation Velocity 133 6.9 Classifications of Explosives and Pyrotechnics by Functions and Sensitivity 133 6.10 The Effects of High Explosives 135 6 Read Less